Me pēhea te hanga o te muka karāhe?

Ko te muka karāhe e pā ana ki tētahi rōpū hua i hangaia mai i ngā muka karāhe takitahi kua whakakotahihia ki ngā momo āhua. Ka taea te wehewehe i ngā muka karāhe ki ngā rōpū matua e rua i runga i ō rātou āhua: ngā muka tonu e whakamahia ana i roto i ngā miro me ngā kakahu, me ngā muka motumotu (poto) e whakamahia ana hei papa, hei paraikete, hei papa rānei mō te whakamahana me te tātari. Ka taea te hanga muka karāhe hei miro, pērā i te huruhuru hipi, te miro rānei, ā, ka whatuhia hei kakahu e whakamahia ana i ētahi wā mō ngā ārai. He mea noa te whakamahi i ngā kakahu muka karāhe hei rauemi whakapakari mō ngā kirihou kua whakarewaina me ngā kirihou kua whakakikoruatia. Ko te huruhuru hipi muka karāhe, he rauemi matotoru, he huruhuru i hangaia mai i ngā muka motumotu, e whakamahia ana mō te whakamahana wera me te mimiti oro. He mea noa te kitea i roto i ngā parepare me ngā anga o ngā kaipuke me ngā waka ruku moana; ngā wāhanga miihini motuka me ngā raina panera tinana; i roto i ngā oumu me ngā waeine hauhautanga; ngā panera pakitara me te tuanui oro; me ngā wehewehenga hoahoa. Ka taea te whakarite i te muka karāhe mō ngā tono motuhake pēnei i te Momo E (hiko), e whakamahia ana hei rīpene whakamahana hiko, kakahu me te whakapakari; Momo C (matū), he ātete waikawa pai ake, me te Momo T, mō te whakamahana wera.

Ahakoa he mea hou te whakamahinga arumoni o te muka karāhe, i hangaia e ngā tohunga toi ngā miro karāhe hei whakapaipai i ngā kapu me ngā vaka i te wā o te Renaissance. I hangaia e te tohunga ahupūngao Wīwī, a Rene-Antoine Ferchault de Reaumur, he kakahu i whakapaipaihia ki ngā miro karāhe pai i te tau 1713, ā, i tāruatia e ngā kaihanga o Peretānia te mahi toi i te tau 1822. I hangaia e te kaiwhatu hiraka Peretānia he kakahu karāhe i te tau 1842, ā, i whakaatuhia e tētahi atu kaihanga, e Edward Libbey, he kakahu i whatuhia ki te karāhe i te Whakaaturanga Columbian i Chicago i te tau 1893.

Ko te huruhuru karāhe, he puranga huruhuru pūhuruhuru o te muka motumotu i roto i ngā roa matapōkere, i hangaia tuatahitia ki Ūropi i te tīmatanga o te rautau, mā te whakamahi i tētahi tukanga e uru ana ki te kukume i ngā muka mai i ngā tokotoko whakapae ki tētahi pahu hurihuri. I muri i ētahi tekau tau, i whakawhanakehia, i patenthia hoki tētahi tukanga miro. I hangaia he rauemi whakamahana muka karāhe ki Tiamana i te Pakanga Tuatahi o te Ao. I ahu whakamua te rangahau me te whanaketanga e aro ana ki te whakaputa ahumahi o ngā muka karāhe i te United States i ngā tau 1930, i raro i te arataki a ngā kamupene nui e rua, te Owens-Illinois Glass Company me Corning Glass Works. I whakawhanakehia e ēnei kamupene he muka karāhe pai, ngāwari, iti te utu mā te kukume i te karāhe rewa mā roto i ngā kōhao tino pai. I te tau 1938, i hanumi ēnei kamupene e rua hei hanga i te Owens-Corning Fiberglas Corp. Ināianei e mōhiotia whānuitia ana ko Owens-Corning, kua riro hei kamupene $3 piriona ia tau, ā, he kaiārahi i te mākete muka karāhe.

Ngā Rauemi Mata

Ko ngā rauemi mata taketake mō ngā hua muka karāhe he momo kohuke taiao me ngā matū hanga. Ko ngā kai matua ko te onepu silica, te kōhatu papa, me te pungarehu houra. Ko ētahi atu kai ko te alumina kua whakapūkarahia, te borax, te feldspar, te nepheline syenite, te magnesite, me te uku kaolin, me ētahi atu. Ka whakamahia te onepu silica hei hanga karāhe, ā, ko te pungarehu houra me te kōhatu papa te mea nui hei whakaiti i te pāmahana rewa. Ka whakamahia ētahi atu kai hei whakapai ake i ētahi āhuatanga, pērā i te borax hei ātete ki ngā matū. Ko te karāhe para, e kiia ana ko te cullet, ka whakamahia hoki hei rauemi mata. Me ata paunatia ngā rauemi mata ki ngā rahinga tika, ā, me whakaranu pai (e kiia ana ko te batching) i mua i te whakarewanga ki roto i te karāhe.

Te Hanga
Tukanga

Te rewa

Kia oti te whakarite i te puranga, ka tukuna ki roto i te oumu hei whakarewa. Ka taea te whakamahana i te oumu mā te hiko, te wahie pūmua, te whakakotahitanga rānei o ngā mea e rua. Me whakahaere tika te pāmahana kia mau tonu ai te rere o te karāhe. Me pupuri te karāhe rewa ki te pāmahana teitei ake (tata ki te 2500°F [1371°C]) i ētahi atu momo karāhe kia hangaia ai hei muka. Kia rewa te karāhe, ka whakawhitia ki ngā taputapu hanga mā te awa (te oumu mua) kei te pito o te oumu.

Te hanga hei muka

He maha ngā tukanga rerekē e whakamahia ana hei hanga muka, i runga i te momo muka. Ka taea te hanga muka kakahu mai i te karāhe rewa tika mai i te oumu, ka taea rānei te whāngai tuatahi i te karāhe rewa ki tētahi mīhini e hanga ana i ngā māpere karāhe he 0.62 inihi (1.6 cm) te whānui. Mā ēnei māpere ka taea te tirotiro ā-kanohi i te karāhe mō ngā poke. I roto i te tukanga rewa tika me te tukanga rewa māpere, ka whāngaihia te karāhe, ngā māpere karāhe rānei mā roto i ngā pū whakawera hiko (e kiia ana ko ngā spinnerets). He mea hanga te pū whakawera ki te konukawata, ki te koranu whakarewa rānei, me te 200 ki te 3,000 ngā kōhao tino pai. Ka haere te karāhe rewa mā roto i ngā kōhao, ā, ka puta mai hei miro pai.

Te tukanga miro-tonu

Ka taea te whakaputa i tētahi muka roa, tonu mā te tukanga miro tonu. I muri i te rere o te karāhe i roto i ngā kōhao o te pū, ka mauhia ngā miro maha ki runga i tētahi mīhini hurihuri tere-rahi. Ka huri te mīhini hurihuri i te tere tata ki te 2 maero (3 km) i te meneti, he tere ake i te tere o te rere mai i ngā pū. Ka hutia ngā miro e te taumahatanga i a ia e rewa tonu ana, ka hanga he miro he wāhanga iti iho i te whānui o ngā whakatuwheratanga i roto i te pū. Ka whakamahia he here matū, hei āwhina i te ārai i te muka kia kore e whati i te wā e tukatukahia ana i muri mai. Kātahi ka takaihia te miro ki ngā ngongo. Ka taea inaianei te miro me te whatu hei miro.

Te tukanga muka-tīpako

Ko tētahi atu tikanga ko te tukanga muka-tāpiri. I te rere o te karāhe rewa i roto i ngā pū, ka tere te whakamatao o ngā miro e ngā pupuhi hau. Ka pakaruhia hoki e ngā pahūtanga hau pōrearea ngā miro kia roa, kia 8-15 inihi (20-38 cm). Ka taka ēnei miro mā te rehu hinu ki runga i tētahi pahu hurihuri, ka hanga he tukutuku angiangi. Ka tangohia te tukutuku mai i te pahu, ka kumea hei aho tonu o ngā muka kua huihuia. Ka taea te tukatuka i tēnei aho hei miro mā roto i ngā tukanga ōrite e whakamahia ana mō te huruhuru hipi me te miro.

muka tapatapahi

Engari i te hanga hei miro, ka taea te tapatapahi i te miro tonu, te miro roa rānei kia poto. Ka whakamaua te miro ki runga i tētahi huinga pōro, e kiia nei ko te creel, ā, ka tōia mā roto i tētahi mīhini hei tapatapahi kia poto. Ka hangaia te muka tapatapahi hei whāriki ka tāpirihia he here ki roto. I muri i te whakamaroke i roto i te oumu, ka pōkaihia te whāriki. He maha ngā taumaha me ngā matotoru e hanga ana i ngā hua mō ngā shingle, ngā tuanui hanga, ngā whāriki whakapaipai rānei.

Wūru karāhe

Ko te tukanga hurihuri, te tukanga takahuri rānei, e whakamahia ana hei hanga huruhuru karāhe. I roto i tēnei tukanga, ka rere te karāhe rewa mai i te oumu ki roto i tētahi ipu porotaka he kōhao iti ōna. I te tere o te hurihuri o te ipu, ka rere ngā awa karāhe whakapae mai i ngā kōhao. Ka hurihia ngā awa karāhe rewa hei muka mā te pupuhi o te hau ki raro, te hau wera, ngā mea e rua rānei. Ka taka ngā muka ki runga i te whitiki kawe, ka honoa tetahi ki tetahi hei puranga huruhuru. Ka taea tēnei te whakamahi mō te whakamahana, ka taea rānei te rehu i te huruhuru ki te here, ka pēhia ki te matotoru e hiahiatia ana, ka whakamaroke i roto i te oumu. Ka whakatakotoria te here e te wera, ā, ko te hua ka puta he papa pakari, he papa pakari-haurua rānei, he papa ngāwari rānei.

Ngā paninga tiaki

Haunga ngā here, e hiahiatia ana ētahi atu paninga mō ngā hua muka karāhe. Ka whakamahia ngā hinu whakahinuhinu hei whakaiti i te pakū o te muka, ā, ka rehu tika ki runga i te muka, ka tāpirihia rānei ki roto i te here. I ētahi wā ka rehuhia he hanganga ārai-pūmau ki runga i te mata o ngā whāriki whakamahana muka karāhe i te wā e whakamatao ana. Mā te hau whakamatao e kumea ana i roto i te whāriki ka uru te kaihoko ārai-pūmau ki roto i te matotoru katoa o te whāriki. E rua ngā kai o te kaihoko ārai-pūmau—he rauemi e whakaiti ana i te whakaputanga o te hiko pūmau, me te rauemi e mahi ana hei aukati i te waikura me te whakau. Ko te rahinga he paninga e whakamahia ana ki ngā muka kakahu i te mahi hanga, ā, tera pea kei roto i tētahi, neke atu rānei ngā wāhanga (ngā hinu whakahinuhinu, ngā herenga, ngā kaihoko hononga rānei). Ka whakamahia ngā kaihoko hononga ki ngā whenu ka whakamahia hei whakapakari i ngā kirihou, hei whakapakari i te hononga ki te rauemi whakapakari. I ētahi wā ka hiahiatia he mahi whakaoti hei tango i ēnei paninga, hei tāpiri rānei i tētahi atu paninga. Mō ngā whakapakari kirihou, ka taea te tango i ngā rahinga mā te wera, ngā matū rānei, ka whakamahia he kaihoko hononga. Mō ngā tono whakapaipai, me whakamahana ngā papanga hei tango i ngā rahinga me te whakatakoto i te raranga. Kātahi ka pania ngā paninga tae i mua i te taetanga, i te tānga rānei.

Te hanga hei āhua

He whānuitanga ngā āhua o ngā hua muka karāhe, he maha ngā tukanga e hanga ai. Hei tauira, ka takaihia te whakamarumaru paipa muka karāhe ki ngā āhua rite ki te tokotoko e kiia nei ko ngā mandrel tika mai i ngā wae hanga, i mua i te whakamaroke. Ko ngā āhua pokepoke, he 3 putu (91 cm) te roa, iti iho rānei, ka whakamarokehia i roto i te oumu. Kātahi ka tangohia ngā roa kua whakamarokehia kia roa, ka tapahia kia rite ki ngā rahi kua tohua. Ka pania ngā mata ki te hiahiatia, ā, ka tākaihia te hua mō te tuku.

Mana Kounga

I te wā e hangaia ana te whakamahana muka karāhe, ka tangohia he tauira o ngā rauemi i ētahi wāhi hei pupuri i te kounga. Kei roto i ēnei wāhi: te puranga whakauru e whāngaihia ana ki te mīhini whakarewa hiko; te karāhe rewa mai i te pū e whāngai ana i te mīhini muka; te muka karāhe e puta mai ana i te mīhini muka; me te hua kua whakamaroketia whakamutunga e puta mai ana i te pito o te raina whakaputa. Ka tātarihia ngā tauira karāhe me te muka nui mō te hanganga matū me te aroaro o ngā hapa mā te whakamahi i ngā tātari matū matatau me ngā karu hiko. Ka whiwhihia te tohatoha rahi matūriki o te rauemi puranga mā te tuku i te rauemi mā roto i ētahi tātari rahi rerekē. Ka inehia te matotoru o te hua whakamutunga i muri i te takai kia rite ki ngā whakaritenga. Ko te huringa o te matotoru e tohu ana kei raro iho te kounga karāhe i te paerewa.

Ka whakamahia hoki e ngā kaihanga whakamahana muka karāhe ngā momo tikanga whakamātautau paerewa hei ine, hei whakatikatika, hei arotau hoki i te ātete oro o te hua, te mimiti oro, me te mahi ārai oro. Ka taea te whakahaere i ngā āhuatanga oro mā te whakatikatika i ngā taurangi whakaputa pēnei i te diameter muka, te matotoru o te papatipu, te matotoru, me te nui o te here. Ka whakamahia he huarahi rite hei whakahaere i ngā āhuatanga wera.

Te Ao o Muri Mai

He nui ngā wero e pā ana ki te umanga muka karāhe i ngā tau 1990 me tua atu. Kua piki ake te maha o ngā kaihanga o te muka karāhe nā ngā apiti o Amerika o ngā kamupene ke, me ngā whakapainga o te hua o ngā kaihanga o Amerika. Nā tēnei kua nui rawa te kaha, kāore e taea e te mākete o nāianei me te mākete o muri mai pea te whakauru.

Haunga te kaha nui, ka whakataetae ētahi atu rauemi whakamahana. Kua whānuitia te whakamahinga o te huruhuru hipi nā ngā whakapainga o ngā tukanga me ngā hua hou. Ko te whakamahana pahuka tētahi atu huarahi hei whakakapi i te muka karāhe i roto i ngā pakitara whare noho me ngā tuanui arumoni. Ko tētahi atu rauemi whakataetae ko te cellulose, e whakamahia ana i roto i te whakamahana o te tuanui.

Nā te iti o te hiahia mō te whakamahana i te whare nā te ngoikore o te mākete whare, kei te tono ngā kaihoko kia iti ake ngā utu. Ko tēnei hiahia anō hoki he hua nō te haere tonu o te whakakotahitanga o ngā kaihokohoko me ngā kaimahi kirimana. Hei whakautu, me haere tonu te umanga whakamahana muka karāhe ki te whakaheke i ngā utu i ngā wāhanga nui e rua: te pūngao me te taiao. Me whakamahi ngā oumu whai hua ake, kāore e whakawhirinaki ki te kotahi puna pūngao anake.

I te mea kua eke te rahi o ngā whenua ururua ki te taumata teitei rawa, me tata kore rawa ngā kaihanga muka karāhe e whakaputa i ngā para totoka, me te kore e piki ake ngā utu. Me whakapai ake i ngā tukanga hangahanga hei whakaiti i ngā para (mō ngā para wai me ngā para hau) me te whakamahi anō i ngā para i ngā wāhi katoa e taea ai.

Tērā pea me tukatuka anō, me whakarewa anō hoki aua para i mua i te whakamahinga anō hei rauemi mata. He maha ngā kaihanga kei te aro atu ki ēnei take.